Litwomani i polonizatorzy. Mity, wzajemne postrzeganie i stereotypy w stosunkach polsko-litewskich w pierwszej połowie XX wieku

Abstract

Alongside the resulting stereotypes, this book aims to reconstruct and analyse the myths and mutual perception concerning Polish-Lithuanian relations in the first half of the 20th C., but more precisely from the establishment of the Lithuanian National Movement in the 1880s up until l944. In this context, the author also examines the origins, content and the extent the role of myths, images and stereotypes played in the relationship between the two nations. In the period discussed, Lithuanians formed a considerably negative image of Poles and Poland - likewise, Poles voiced unfavourable opinions about Lithuania and Lithuanians. Myths and stereotypes greatly determined a mutual perception of Poles and Lithuanians and were the basis of a Polish perception of Lithuania even before the Lithuanian National Movement was founded. In the first half of the 20th c. myths and stereotypes played a significant role in bilateral relations. It was cultural tradition, literary output in particular which was of great importance in forming the Polish perception. Lithuanian themes were present in the work of the most popular Polish writers of the time such as Adam Mickiewicz, Henryk Sienkiewicz, and Maria Rodziewiczówna in the 19th and the beginning of the 20th c. Before this point, Lithuania was always viewed with great fondness by Poles, so much so that, until the 20th c., the term "Lithuanian" stood for one's actual descent and not that of Lithuanian nationality - many Poles who lived in Lithuania were proud of their Lithuanian descent and referred to themselves as Lithuanians. However, due to the fact that the Lithuanian National Movement rejected this tradition, a majority of Poles made the assumption that the change in mood had been inspired by Russian officials who were hostile towards Polish independence. Supporters of the new movement were named by the Poles living in Lithuania litwomani - a term which indicated an obsessive fascination or even illness. Myths taken from literary works had a considerable influence on the development of the Lithuanian National Movement; for instance, an interpretation of history was of literary origin and was often used as an argument in polemics with Poles. The supporters of the new movement (the so-called litwomani) maintained that Lithuania was constrained by Poland under the pretext of the union, and the majority of citizens became linguistically Polonised. The basic assumption of the Lithuanian National Movement activists was the belief that Poles living in Lithuania were Polonised Lithuanians who needed to be assimilated as Lithuanian nationals. Lithuanian nationalism considered this myth to be an axiom. Such a thesis enjoyed popularity during the whole of the 20th c. but was totally rejected however by Polish pubic opinion. The Polish-Lithuanian conflict escalated during World War I and between 1918 and 1922. The main Polish political forces did not foresee the creation of a fully independent country ruled by Lithuanians themselves. On the other hand, Lithuanians aspired to create an independent, sovereign country with its capital in Wilno, and to disregard the stance of local Poles and Poland. This resulted in local conflict and fighting between Poles and Lithuanians between the years of 1919 and 1920. In the meantime, some major events divided the two nations greatly, namely the "rebellion" of General Lucjan Żeligowski in October 1920, followed by the incorporation of the Wilno region as part of Poland in 1922. In the Polish historical consciousness both of these events were assessed in a positive way as a stage in joining together all the lands inhabited by Poles with that of Poland. Both Lithuanians and Poles missed the fact that the creation of Central Lithuania was a part of the federal intention forced by Józef Piłsudski, which in such conditions however became only utopian in character. The years between the Wars brought about a process of considerable mutual strengthening of the negative images of Poles and Lithuanians. The process was also facilitated by the unusual relationship of the two nations. Lithuania isolated itself from Poland, closing borders and breaking off all official contact. An image of Poland, as a lifelong enemy, partitioner and occupier of the Wilno region was created in Lithuania which strengthened the dogma concerning Polonised Lithuanians. Poland was presented in journalism and propaganda as a poor country ruled by the army and nobility, and it was maintained that minority groups were persecuted. Polish stereotypes on the other hand were presented by Lithuanians as being proud, greedy, quarrelsome, lazy and possessive. Conversely, Poles saw Lithuania as a country dependent on Germany and was also perceived as being poor and ruled by cynical careerist and traitors. Any Lithuanian success, but economic success in particular, was hardly ever mentioned. The Lithuanian stereotype in Poland was presented as stubborn, brutal, greedy and chauvinistic. They were often represented as wild creatures and labelled żmogusy. In 1938 Poland took advantage of a border incident and demanded that Lithuania restore diplomatic relations. Lithuania accepted the conditions. The period of normalization and restoration of offical contacts between 1938 and 1939 was too short lived to change any mutual negative perceptions of one another however, and in many cases, Lithuanians in particular, lacked the will to introduce any such changes. The outbreak of World War II marked the beginning of a new era regarding Polish-Lithuanian relations. The Soviet Union together with Germany's assaults on Poland handed over the Wilno region to Lithuania. The Lithuanian authorities in the territory of the Wilno region started to force people living there to accept the Lithuanian language, which brought about further reluctance and resistance from the local Polish population. Objectification of the local Polish population brought about its resistance and reluctance towards new authorities. In 1940 Lithuania was incorporated into the USSR and by 1941 the German army had marched in. Under Soviet and then German occupation the Polish-Lithuanian conflict increased seriously yet again, with a part of Lithuanian sodety seeing Poland as a threat to Lithuanian sovereignty over the Wilno region. This can be seen as the reason why, many Lithuanians requested support from their German occupiers. The Polish underground in the Wilno region considered the-alike thinking Lithuanians to be enemies and saw no room for compromise. The escalation of the conflict took place in the spring and summer of 1944, when the Red Army approached the Lithuanian borders. The exiled Polish Government however, which had hoped for concord for so long, along with the creation of a federation after the war to include Poland, Lithuania, Czechoslovakia and other Central European countries, perceived Lithuanians in a different way. Under Soviet domination in the second half of the 20th c. everyday understanding of Lithuanians and Poles concerning 'the other side' remained minimal. This fostered the preservation of myths and stereotypes between the two which was shaped in the first half of the century. The reality of enduring the Soviet system did not help to overcome any prejudices, and even after regaining sovereignty at the brink of the 21st c., the memory of the conflicts which took place so many decades ago had cast a shadow on Polish-Lithuanian relations